What Percentage Of Dietary Vitamin B6 Comes From Animal Sources In A Typical American Diet?

• Journal List
• Nutr Res Pract
• v.viii(6); 2014 Dec
• PMC4252529

Nutr Res Pract. 2014 Dec; eight(6): 688–694.

Evaluation of vitamin B_{half dozen} intake and status of xx- to 64-year-old Koreans

Young-Nam Kim

Department of Food & Nutrition, Duksung Women's Academy, 33, Samyangro 144-gil, Dobong-gu, Seoul 132-714, Korea.

Youn-Ok Cho

Section of Food & Diet, Duksung Women'due south University, 33, Samyangro 144-gil, Dobong-gu, Seoul 132-714, Korea.

Received 2014 Jun 20; Revised 2014 Aug 12; Accustomed 2014 Aug 19.

Abstract

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Recent enquiry regarding vitamin B_{half dozen} status including biochemical index is limited. Thus, this study estimated intakes and major food sources of vitamin B₆; adamant plasma pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP); and assessed vitamin B₆ status of Korean adults.

MATERIALS/METHODS

Three consecutive 24-h diet recalls and fasting blood samples were collected from healthy 20- to 64-year-old adults (n = 254) living in the Seoul metropolitan area, cities of Kwangju and Gumi, Korea. Vitamin B_six intake and plasma PLP were analyzed by gender and by vitamin B_{half dozen} supplementation. Pearson's correlation coefficient was used to determine associations of vitamin B₆ intake and plasma PLP.

RESULTS

The mean dietary and full (dietary plus supplemental) vitamin B₆ intake was one.94 ± 0.64 and two.41 ± 1.45 mg/day, respectively. Median (50th percentile) dietary intake of men and women was two.062 and ane.706 mg/solar day. Foods from institute sources provided 70.61% of dietary vitamin B₆ intake. But 6.3% of subjects consumed total vitamin B_half-dozen less than Estimated Boilerplate Requirements. Plasma PLP concentration of all subjects was 40.03 ± 23.71 nmol/L. The concentration of users of vitamin B_six supplements was significantly higher than that of nonusers (P < 0.001). Approximately 16% of Korean adults had PLP levels < 20 nmol/L, indicating a biochemical deficiency of vitamin B₆, while nineteen.seven% had marginal vitamin B₆ status. Plasma PLP concentration showed positive correlation with total vitamin B_half-dozen intake (r = 0.40984, P < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, vitamin B₆ intake of Korean adults was generally acceptable. Nonetheless, one-third of subjects had vitamin B₆ deficiency or marginal status. Therefore, in some adults in Korea, consumption of vitamin B_vi-rich food sources should be encouraged.

Keywords: Vitamin B₆ intake, vitamin B₆ status, pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP), Korean adults

INTRODUCTION

Vitamin B_six is h2o-soluble and consists of pyridoxine (PN), pyridoxamine (PM), pyridoxal (PL), and their respective phosphate esters. Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP) is the virtually biologically active form of vitamin B₆. Vitamin B₆, which activates a number of coenzymes, is involved in numerous metabolic reactions. PLP is a cofactor for transaminases, decarboxylase, racemases, and other enzymes used in the metabolic transformations of amino acids and nitrogen-containing compounds [1].

Vitamin B_vi deficiency includes weakness, sleeplessness, low, cheilosis, glossitis, stomatitis, and impaired cell-mediated immunity [one]. Plasma PLP is virtually usually used for measurement of vitamin B₆ condition considering it reflects liver PLP concentrations and stores [2,3]. Information technology has been suggested that vitamin B₆ deficiency corresponds to plasma PLP levels < 20 nmol/L [4], while marginal, suboptimal vitamin B₆ condition may be observed for plasma PLP concentrations at 20- < thirty nmol/L [five,6]. Low PLP concentration has been linked to increased risk of seizures, chronic pain, depression, cognitive failure, allowed deficiency, cancer, cardiovascular affliction (CVD), and diabetes. [7,viii,9,10,11]. Thus, an acceptable vitamin B₆ condition may be important to reducing risk of these diseases in populations. Primary vitamin B₆ deficiency is considered rare in developed countries; however, low vitamin B_vi (PLP) concentrations take been reported in elderly populations, smokers, and alcoholics [12].

Vitamin B_half-dozen is widely distributed in foods from plant and fauna origin. It is found in meats and eggs and in plant foods such equally beans, cereals, and brown rice [4]. PL and PM are most common in animal products and PN predominates in plant foods. Constitute sources are mostly less bioavailable than animate being sources because plants contain dietary fiber causing incomplete digestion and less bioavailable glycosylated forms of PN [13]. Korean adults consumed two-thirds of vitamin B₆ from plant foods [xiv], which may issue in insufficient vitamin B₆ status in Koreans, although they have acceptable vitamin B₆ intakes. In improver, individuals with marginal intake of vitamin B_half-dozen would be more prone to decreased vitamin B₆ status due to this incomplete bioavailability [fifteen]. According to the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES 2007-2008), the hateful vitamin B_{half dozen} intakes of male person and female adults were higher than the Recommended Food Intakes (RNI) for Koreans [four]. Although vitamin B_six intakes of Koreans take been reported in several studies [16,17], recent enquiry regarding vitamin B₆ condition including plasma PLP for Koreans is limited.

Therefore, the objectives of this report were to investigate intakes and major food sources of vitamin B_six; examine associations between vitamin B₆ intake and plasma PLP; and assess vitamin B₆ status with plasma PLP concentration of 20- to 64-year-old adults in Korea.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Subjects

Korean adults (n = 275), aged 20 to 64 years, were recruited by advert in a convenience sampling in the Seoul metropolitan area (north = 148) and the cities of Kwangju (n = 76) and Gumi (n = 51) from 2009 to 2011. The subjects were interviewed in gild to obtain information regarding age, former and current illness, medications taken, intake of vitamin and mineral supplements, and ambition. Twenty one adults who had known illnesses, took medications, or were not in proficient health were excluded. Thus, 254 Korean adults were included in this report. During an interview, subjects were asked whether they had used any vitamins, minerals, or other dietary supplements within xxx days of the interview. Subjects taking supplements were asked to provide information on the names, daily corporeality, and duration of supplementation. All interviews were conducted past trained interviewers. Interviewers measured weights and heights of the subjects in lite wearable without shoes. Torso mass index (BMI) was calculated every bit kg/mⁱⁱ. Blessing of the report protocol was obtained from the Institutional Review Board at Duksung Women's University (2011-04-0001), and each participant provided written informed consent.

Calculation of intake of selected nutrients and vitamin B_vi

A trained Korean interviewer recorded three consecutive 24-hour diet recalls (two weekdays and one weekend mean solar day). A calculator-aided nutritional analysis program (CAN-pro) adult by the Korean Nutrition Society [18] was used in computing intakes of macronutrients, h2o-soluble vitamins, and vitamin B_six. Forty 2 subjects (16.5%, 17 men and 25 women) took supplements containing vitamin B_six (xxx subjects in the Seoul metropolitan area and 12 subjects in Kwangju and Gumi). In subjects in their 20s, 19.5% took vitamin B_{half dozen} supplements, and xix.6%, xiv.0%, x.9%, and 10.0% of those in their 30s, 40s, 50s, and 60s, respectively, took vitamin B_six supplements. Thus, the amounts of vitamin B₆ consumed past the subjects were reported as dietary vitamin B₆ (from foods just) and total vitamin B_{half dozen} intake (dietary + supplemental vitamin B_vi). The dietary and full intakes of vitamin B_{half dozen} were compared with the Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) for Koreans [4]. The top 30 major food sources of vitamin B₆ consumed past the subjects were determined using the method of Cho and Kim [xiv].

Claret samples and plasma measurements

Venous blood samples (8-10 mL) were collected from the subjects, who had fasted overnight, in EDTA-containing vacutainer tubes betwixt 7 and 10 am. The tubes were kept in crushed ice and protected from light. Claret samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm at 5℃ for 10 minutes. Plasma was frozen at -70℃ until analyzed.

Plasma PLP concentrations were determined by HPLC with fluorometric detection [xix]. Recovery of added PLP from plasma was 94.2%. Inside-day and between-twenty-four hours reproducibility was < 4% and < 5%, respectively. Detection limit of the assay was i.94 nmol/L. All plasma samples were extracted in duplicate. A cutoff < 20 nmol/L for plasma PLP was used to point vitamin B_half-dozen deficiency [4] and xx- < thirty nmol/Fifty was also used to indicate a marginal condition [v,6].

Statistical analyi

Statistical analyses were performed using SAS version 9.1.3 software (SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, North Carolina, US). Values are reported every bit mean ± standard deviation, and the differences in all variables between men and women were analyzed using Student's-test. Percentile values of vitamin B_vi intakes were also reported by gender. Vitamin B_{half dozen} intakes and plasma PLP concentrations were also reported by vitamin B_six supplementation (nonusers vs. users of dietary vitamin B₆ supplements). Pearson's correlation coefficients were computed to determine relationships among vitamin B₆ intake and plasma PLP concentration. Results were considered statistically significant at P < 0.05.

RESULTS

Subject characteristics

The characteristics of 254 Korean adults aged 20-64 years are shown in Table 1. The mean historic period of subjects was 39.9 ± 13.0 years and BMI was 22.8 ± 2.8 kg/thou². Significantly higher hateful intakes of free energy, macronutrients, and water-soluble vitamins were observed for male subjects compared with female subjects (P < 0.01).

Table ane

General characteristics of 254 Korean adults past gender

Vitamin B₆ intake and major food sources

The mean dietary and total vitamin B₆ intake was one.94 ± 0.64 and 2.41 ± i.45 mg/twenty-four hours, respectively (Table 2). Significantly higher dietary vitamin B₆ intake was observed for males than for females, while a significantly lower ratio of dietary vitamin B₆ to protein intake was observed for males than for females. Foods from found sources provided seventy.61% of dietary vitamin B_{half dozen} intake. Women consumed more dietary vitamin B₆ from plant foods than men and nonusers of vitamin B₆ supplements had more vitamin B_{half dozen} from plant foods than users (P < 0.05). Only 6.three% of the subjects consumed total vitamin B₆ less than EARs.

Tabular array ii

Vitamin B6 intakes and plasma pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP) concentration of 254 Korean adults by gender and by vitamin B6 supplementation

The mean dietary and total vitamin B₆ intakes of Koreans with plasma PLP ≥ xx nmol/L were 1.95 ± 0.56 and two.36 ± ane.29 mg/day, respectively. The mean dietary and total vitamin B_vi intake of subjects having PLP ≥ 30 nmol/L was i.96 ± 0.69 and 2.50 ± 1.40 mg/day, respectively (data not shown). Percentile values of dietary and total vitamin B₆ intake by gender are shown in Tabular array 3. Median dietary and full vitamin B₆ intake of male subjects was 2.062 and ii.433 mg/day, respectively. Female person subjects had median dietary and total vitamin B_{half dozen} intake of 1.706 and 1.847 mg/day, respectively.

Table 3

Percentile values of dietary and full vitamin B6 intake of Korean adults aged 20-64 years

A listing of major nutrient sources of vitamin B₆ consumed by Korean adults in this study is shown in Table iv. The top 10 major dietary sources were Korean Chinese cabbage kimchi, rice, pork, craven, beef, Homo Du (dumpling), rice cake, garlic, murphy, and banana. The top ten foods provided 43.73% of vitamin B₆ intake, and the top 30 foods provided 67.06% of the intake.

Tabular array 4

Major food sources of vitamin B₆ of 254 Korean adults

Plasma PLP concentration and vitamin B_half-dozen status

Plasma PLP concentration of all subjects was 40.03 ± 23.71 nmol/50 (Tabular array 2). No significant differences in PLP levels were observed by gender (P ≥ 0.05), nevertheless, a significantly college concentration was observed for users of vitamin B₆ supplements compared with nonusers (P < 0.001). The per centum distribution of the subjects by plasma PLP concentration is shown in Fig. ane. Approximately 16% of Korean adults had PLP levels < twenty nmol/L, indicating a biochemical deficiency of vitamin B₆ in adults [4]; 19% of subjects had marginal vitamin B₆ status.

Percent distribution of 254 Korean adults by plasma pyridoxal five'-phosphate concentration

Associations among vitamin B₆ intake and plasma PLP concentration

No significant correlations were observed between plasma PLP concentration and dietary vitamin B_six intake including the ratios of dietary vitamin B₆ to free energy and protein intake (P ≥ 0.05) (Table v). However, plasma PLP concentration showed strong positive correlation with total vitamin B₆ intake (r = 0.40984, P < 0.0001).

Tabular array v

Correlations between vitamin B₆ intakes and plasma pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP) concentration

DISCUSSION

The Korean Dietary Reference Intakes (KDRIs), revised in 2010, and the recommendations for vitamin B₆ were the aforementioned as previous KDRIs. The KDRIs for vitamin B₆ are gear up equally EAR, RNI, and UL in all age groups older than one year old. EAR of the KDRIs for vitamin B_six is fix at 1.iii mg/day for men and 1.2 mg/mean solar day for women aged 19-64 years, based on reports that the intake of vitamin B₆ of Korean adults is one.v mg/twenty-four hours with the plasma PLP concentration over xxx nmol/L. The median intakes of 2007-2008 KNHANES, ane.v-one.7 mg/d, were also considered [4]. EARs are the daily nutrient intake estimated to encounter the requirement of half of healthy individuals in a life-phase group, and thus are set at the median of the distribution of requirements. RNIs for nutrients are expected to encounter the needs of 97-98% of good for you individuals. RNIs have been gear up using the same concept as the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) of 2005 [4].

In this study, the mean dietary vitamin B_six intakes of men (2.17 mg/day) and women (1.84 mg/twenty-four hours) were much higher than RNIs and intakes of Korean adults (1.7-1.8 for men, 1.3-1.4 mg/day for women) reported in KNHANES 2007-2008 [4]. Also, in this study, current dietary vitamin B₆ intake (1.94 ± 0.64 mg/day) was increased compared to the intakes of Korean young adults reported in 2001 (0.987 mg/solar day) [14] and 2005 (one.44-1.57 mg/24-hour interval) [20], merely is like to recently reported dietary vitamin B₆ intake of Japanese (1.7 mg/twenty-four hours) [21] and Chinese adults (1.seven mg/twenty-four hours) [22]. In this study, dietary supplements providing vitamin B₆ increased hateful intake from food sources lone by 32% for men, from 2.17 to 2.86 mg, and by 21% for women, from 1.84 to 2.22 mg. Approximately 17% of Korean adults took vitamin B₆ supplements and their mean total vitamin B_six intake was iv.56 mg/day, which is much lower than that of American adults taking vitamin B₆ supplements (13.74-fourteen.sixteen mg/twenty-four hours) [23].

Median (50th percentile) nutrient intakes of the good for you population are used for setting EARs. EARs for vitamin B₆ are based on the vitamin B₆ intake required for plasma PLP ≥ 30 nmol/L [iv]. In this study, median dietary vitamin B_vi intakes of men and women were two.062 and one.706 mg/day, respectively, higher than those of KNHANES 2007-2008 (1.5-1.half dozen mg/twenty-four hour period for men, 1.1-one.two mg/day for women) [iv]. Median dietary vitamin B_vi intake of men and women with PLP ≥ thirty nmol/L was 1.996 and 1.748 mg/day, respectively. Thus, electric current EARs for vitamin B_six of KDRIs might exist underestimated.

EARs are used to gauge the prevalence of inadequate intake within a group of individuals [4]. In this study, in Korean adults aged twenty-64 years, low proportions of participants had intakes below EARs for dietary vitamin B₆ intake (8.0 % of men, vii.8% of women). Only 6.3% had total vitamin B₆ (dietary + supplemental) less than EARs. In previous studies conducted before 2005, dietary vitamin B₆ intakes were compared to RDAs for vitamin B₆. In 2001, Cho and Kim [14] reported that 87.ii% of Korean women (n = 218) consumed vitamin B₆ less than RDAs. In 2005, 57% of Korean young adults (n = 294) had vitamin B₆ intake less than RDAs [20]. In the current study, total vitamin B_half-dozen intakes of but xx% were less than the electric current RNIs. Therefore, vitamin B_six intakes of Koreans are improved and are currently adequate.

Regarding major dietary sources of vitamin B₆, in the current study, the top 10 foods provide most 44% of dietary vitamin B₆, whereas approximately 64% and 50-75% was reported for Korean adults in 2001 [14] and in 2005 [20], respectively; thus, dietary contributors of vitamin B₆ of Korean adults have been more than varied over the years. Amidst the 10 major sources in this study, rice, pork, craven, garlic, potato, and banana were found in the summit 10 sources reported in 2001 [20]. In this study, women consumed more dietary vitamin B_six from found foods than men. In general, plant foods incorporate less poly peptide than animate being-derived foods. For this reason, the ratio of dietary vitamin B₆ to protein intake of women might be higher than that of men who had much high protein intake.

Plasma PLP concentration, a straight measure of the active coenzyme, reflects dietary intake and tissue status of vitamin B₆. Plasma PLP < 30 nmol/L has been used as an indicator of vitamin B₆ deficient status and the Committee of KDRIs based the vitamin B_six intake required for this value [4]. The more conservative cutoff for plasma PLP of 20 nmol/Fifty was selected as the basis for the average requirement (EAR) for vitamin B₆ in US DRIs, although its use may overestimate the B₆ requirement for wellness maintenance of more than than half of the group, and Hansen et al. [24] reported an acceptable value of 30 nmol/L for plasma PLP concentration. Therefore, values in the 20 to thirty nmol/L range are recommended as indicative of suboptimal, marginal vitamin B₆ condition [25]. Vitamin B₆ deficiency has also been shown to be mutual in the developed population, with prevalence rates of 11-24% [12,26]. According to the 2003-2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) in the U.South., 24% of people had vitamin B₆ scarce status [12]. In this written report, the prevalence rate of the deficiency was 15.7%, and 19.vii% of the subjects had marginal vitamin B₆ status. In users of vitamin B₆ supplements, only two subjects (four.viii %) had plasma PLP concentration < 20 nmol/Fifty and none of the users had marginal status, meaning that vitamin B₆ supplementation may protect against vitamin B₆ deficiency. Although not accompanied past clinical symptoms of deficiency, marginal vitamin B₆ status may increment the take a chance for chronic diseases such as cancer and CVD [27,28,29]. In the current study, 35.4% of Korean adults had plasma PLP concentration < 30 nmol/L, slightly higher than those of Taiwanese (28.nine%) [27] and Puerto Rican adults (28.5%) [26]. Therefore, in this study, 1-third of Korean adults were vitamin B_six deficient or marginal status and should improve their vitamin B_half-dozen status for prevention of chronic diseases such as CVD, inflammatory diseases, and cancer.

In this study, although male subjects showed significantly college dietary and total vitamin B₆ intakes than female person subjects, no significant difference in plasma PLP concentration by gender was observed. Vitamin B_half-dozen is required by many enzymes in poly peptide metabolism and loftier protein intake may increase usage of vitamin B₆ in the body. Thus, several studies have reported that high protein intake lowers plasma PLP concentrations [xxx,31]. In this written report, men consumed less dietary vitamin B_six per poly peptide intake than women, which might result in no difference of plasma PLP concentration by gender.

The bioavailability of nutrients in foods and dietary supplements is an important upshot in evaluating the adequacy of diets and resolving inadequate status [25]. In an animal written report, the bioavailability of vitamin B₆ in humans consuming a mixed diet was approximately 75% [32] and the digestibility of vitamin B₆ from animal products was approximately x% greater than from plant sources [33]. Pyridoxine five'-β-D-glucoside, a glycosylated from of vitamin B₆ usually found in foods of establish origin, is approximately 50% as bioavailable as other forms of vitamin B_half-dozen [8]. Therefore, the bioavailability of vitamin B₆ from animalderived foods is higher than that from plant foods. In the U.Southward., approximately fifty% of dietary vitamin B₆ is from animate being sources and the other l% is from plant-based foods [34]. Co-ordinate to the National Diet and Diet Survey, British adults swallow 35% of vitamin B₆ from animal foods [35]. In this report, simply 29% of vitamin B_{half dozen} intake was from animal sources, slightly lower, compared to results reported for Korean adults in 2001 (32%) [14] and 2005 (32-37%) [20]. Although the prevalence of inadequate vitamin B_vi intake was quite low, one-third of the subjects in this study had vitamin B₆ deficiency or marginal status. The reason might be that vitamin B_half-dozen intakes were mainly from plant foods, which are less bioavailable.

A positive relationship has been observed betwixt vitamin B₆ intake and plasma PLP [19,24]. In addition, significant correlations between plasma PLP and urinary total vitamin B₆ and plasma total vitamin B_half-dozen accept been reported [36]. In this study, no significant correlations were observed between plasma PLP and dietary vitamin B₆ intake, including the ratios of dietary vitamin B₆ to energy and protein intake. However, plasma PLP concentration showed strong positive correlation with total vitamin B_half-dozen intake (r = 0.40984, P < 0.0001). Because the subjects supplementing vitamin B_vi additionally consumed 0.44-7.62 mg/day of vitamin B_half-dozen, total vitamin B_{half dozen} intake showed significant correlation with plasma PLP rather than dietary intake. In improver, the course of vitamin B₆ in nigh supplements consumed by subjects was PN hydrochloride, which is more bioavailable than a glycosylated from of vitamin B₆ in establish foods. Thus, in this study, supplemented vitamin B₆ might produce a greater response on plasma PLP than dietary vitamin B₆ mostly from institute foods.

The nutrient database of CAN-pro is based on the Korean Food Limerick Tabular array (Korean Rural Evolution Administration, 2006) and the Food Values (Korean Nutrition Society, 2009). The food database including vitamin B₆ of these is based on raw foods. In raw foods, food contents are changed past nutrient preparation, cooking conditions (e.k. fourth dimension and temperature), and the add-on of dissimilar ingredients depending on household preferences. Therefore, cooked foods consumed past the subjects might exist underestimated.

In decision, in this written report, vitamin B₆ intake of Korean adults was generally acceptable. However, 15% of the subjects had vitamin B₆ deficiency and xx% had marginal status. Low vitamin B_vi status is associated with high run a risk of CVD, inflammatory illness, and cancer. Therefore, in some adults in Korea, consumption of vitamin B_half-dozen-rich animal food sources, which are more bioavailable, should be encouraged. Vitamin B_{half dozen} supplementation could exist considered for improvement of vitamin B_half-dozen status, if necessary.

Footnotes

This research was supported by the 2013 inquiry fund from the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2011-0021273).

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Manufactures from Nutrition Research and Do are provided here courtesy of Korean Order of Community Nutrition and the Korean Nutrition Lodge

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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4252529/

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